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Experimental Biology and Medicine 229:988-995 (2004)
© 2004 Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine

MINIREVIEW

DNA Methylation, Cancer Susceptibility, and Nutrient Interactions

Cindy D. Davis*,1 and Eric O. Uthus{dagger}

* National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, Nutritional Sciences Research Group, Rockville, Maryland 20892–7328; and {dagger} United States Department of Agriculture, Grand Forks Human Nutrition Research Center, Grand Forks, North Dakota 58202–9034

1To whom requests for reprints should be addressed at Nutritional Sciences Research Group, Division of Cancer Prevention, National Cancer Institute, 6130 Executive Boulevard, Suite 3159, Rockville, MD 20892–7328. E-mail: davisci{at}mail.nih.gov


   Abstract
Top
 Abstract
Introduction
 What Is DNA Methylation?
 Role of DNA Methylation...
 Nutrients That Affect DNA...
 There Is a Need...
 Summary
 References
 
DNA methylation is an important epigenetic mechanism of transcriptional control. DNA methylation plays an essential role in maintaining cellular function, and changes in methylation patterns may contribute to the development of cancer. Aberrant methylation of DNA (global hypomethylation accompanied by region-specific hypermethylation) is frequently found in tumor cells. Global hypomethylation can result in chromosome instability, and hypermethylation has been associated with the inaction of tumor suppressor genes. Preclinical and clinical studies suggest that part of the cancer-protective effects associated with several bioactive food components may relate to DNA methylation patterns. Dietary factors that are involved in one-carbon metabolism provide the most compelling data for the interaction of nutrients and DNA methylation because they influence the supply of methyl groups, and therefore the biochemical pathways of methylation processes. These nutrients include folate, vitamin B12, vitamin B6, methionine, and choline. However, looking at individual nutrients may be too simplistic. Dietary methyl (folate, choline, and methionine) deficiency in combination causes decreased tissue S-adeno-sylmethionine, global DNA hypomethylation, hepatic steatosis, cirrhosis, and ultimately hepatic tumorigenesis in rodents in the absence of carcinogen treatment. Other dietary components such as vitamin B12, alcohol, and selenium may modify the response to inadequate dietary folate.

Key Words: DNA methylation • cancer • folate • selenium • epigenetics


   Introduction
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
What Is DNA Methylation?
 Role of DNA Methylation...
 Nutrients That Affect DNA...
 There Is a Need...
 Summary
 References
 
A wealth of evidence points to the diet as one of the most important modifiable determinants of cancer risk. A large number of bioactive components have been identified in food that are protective at different stages of cancer formation. Diet has been implicated in many pathways involved in carcinogenesis, including apoptosis, cell cycle control, differentiation, inflammation, angiogenesis, DNA repair, and carcinogen metabolism. These are also processes that are likely regulated by DNA methylation and other epigenetic events. Epigenetic events constitute an important mechanism by which dietary components can selectively activate or inactivate gene expression. This review will focus on how dietary components can affect DNA methylation and thus cancer susceptibility.


   What Is DNA Methylation?
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 What Is DNA Methylation?
Role of DNA Methylation...
 Nutrients That Affect DNA...
 There Is a Need...
 Summary
 References
 
In humans, DNA methylation predominantly involves the covalent addition of a methyl group (CH3) to the 5' position of cytosine that precedes a guanosine in the DNA sequence (the CpG dinucleotide). This is referred to as an epigenetic modification because it does not change the coding sequence of the DNA. The distribution in the genome of the CpG dinucleotides at which DNA methylation occurs is asymmetric. In contrast to the relative paucity of CpGs in the genome as a whole, these dinucleotides can be clustered in small stretches of DNA termed "CpG islands" (1). These regions are often associated with the promoter regions of genes. Almost half of the genes in our genome have such CpG-rich promoter regions (2). In the bulk of the genome, about 80% of the CpG dinucleotides that are not associated with CpG islands are heavily methylated (2). In contrast, the dinucleotides in CpG islands, especially those associated with gene promoters, are usually unmethylated (3). The methylation of CpG islands in the promoter region silences gene expression and is a normal event that occurs in cells to regulate gene expression.

The mechanism for the CpG island–associated gene silencing seems to involve the link of specific methylated DNA binding proteins with a variety of proteins such as transcription factors, DNA methyltransferases (DNMT1, 2, 3L, 3A, and 3B), methyl-binding proteins (MeCP1 and 2, MBD1, 2, 3, and 4, and KAISO), histone-modifying enzymes (acetylases, deacetylases, methylases), chromatin-remodeling factors (SWI2/SNF2, ISW1, and Mi-2) and their multimolecular complexes (4). In general, these protein/ DNA interactions alter the DNA conformation (5). The DNA structure changes to a compact, condensed chromatin configuration that results in a stable inhibition of messenger RNA and protein production (6).


   Role of DNA Methylation in Carcinogenesis
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 What Is DNA Methylation?
 Role of DNA Methylation...
Nutrients That Affect DNA...
 There Is a Need...
 Summary
 References
 
Abnormal patterns of DNA methylation in cancer cells have been recognized for more than 20 years (4). The situation has been confusing because virtually all types of cancer examined have both global hypomethylation and gene-specific hypermethylation in the gene promoter regions (7). Hypermethylation of promoter regions, which is associated with transcriptional silencing, is at least as common as DNA mutation as a mechanism for inactivation of classical tumor suppressor genes in human cancers (8, 9). Furthermore, a number of candidate tumor suppressor genes that are not commonly inactivated by mutation are transcriptionally silenced by this mechanism (8). The aberrant methylation of genes that suppress tumorigenesis appears to occur early in tumor development and increases progressively, eventually leading to the malignant phenotype (10, 11). Genes involved in every step of tumorigenesis can be silenced by this epigenetic mechanism. In an excellent review on tumorigenesis, Hanahan and Weinberg (12) have pointed out the major hallmarks of cancer. The fundamental properties required to generate the characteristic malignant attributes associated with cancer cells are the ability to replicate without limitation, indifference to positive growth signals, disregard for growth inhibitory factors, evasion of programmed cell death, sustained angiogenesis, and the ability to invade and metastasize (12). Each of these traits is influenced by a gene or set of genes. Failure to express the gene correctly and produce functional regulatory proteins leads to the uncontrolled pattern of cell behavior observed in a typical neoplasm. Hypermethylation is associated with the inactivation of virtually all pathways involved with the cancer process, such as DNA repair (hMLH1, BRCA1, MGMT), cell cycle regulation (p16, p14, p15), apoptosis (DAPK, APAF-1), carcinogen metabolism (GSTP1), hormonal response (RARß2), and cell adherence (CDH1, CDH3; Refs. 13–15). Furthermore, a tumor-type specific profile of CpG island hypermethylation exists in human cancer that allows the use of these aberrantly hypermethylated loci as biomarkers of the malignant disease (16).

Despite the well-documented presence of both global hypomethylation and regional DNA hypermethylation in cancer, the mechanisms of these events remain unclear, especially the paradox of why DNA remains hypomethylated in the presence of increased DNA methyltransferase activity and expression. It has been suggested that deregulation of DNA methyltransferases might lead to tumor-specific genome-wide hypomethylation in cancers (17). A significant correlation between overexpression of DNMT3b4, an inactive splice variant of DNMT3b, and degree of DNA hypomethylation on pericentromeric satellite regions of preneoplastic and neoplastic tissue provides support for this hypothesis (18). DNA methyl-transferases have also been found to bind with higher affinity to DNA strand breaks, abasic sites, and uracil than they do to their cognate hemimethylated CpG sites, consistent with their ancestral function as DNA repair enzymes (19). These same DNA lesions are often present in human preneoplastic cells, which raises the possibility that DNA lesions may be a necessary prerequisite for the disruption of normal DNA methylation patterns in preneo-plastic and neoplastic cells (19).


   Nutrients That Affect DNA Methylation and Cancer Susceptibility
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 What Is DNA Methylation?
 Role of DNA Methylation...
 Nutrients That Affect DNA...
There Is a Need...
 Summary
 References
 
Several bioactive food components can modulate DNA methylation and cancer susceptibility (Table 1Go). Dietary factors that are involved in one-carbon metabolism provide the most compelling data for the interaction of nutrients and DNA methylation because they influence the supply of methyl groups and therefore the biochemical pathways of methylation processes. These nutrients include vitamin B12, vitamin B6, folate, methionine, and choline.


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  		Table 1. Dietary Factors Known to Influence DNA Methylation and Cancer Susceptibility
 
Folate has a central role in one-carbon metabolism (Figure 1Go). Normally in one-carbon metabolism, a carbon unit from serine or glycine is transferred to tetrahydrofolate to form 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate (20). Vitamin B6 is a necessary co-factor for glycine hydroxymethyltransferase in the synthesis of 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate (21). This form of folate can be used for the synthesis of thymidine; oxidized to formyltetrahydrofolate for the synthesis of purines or reduced to 5-methyltetrahydrofolate and used to methylate homocysteine to form methionine (21). The vitamin B12–dependent enzyme, methionine synthase (MS), catalyzes the synthesis of methionine from homo-cysteine. Methionine is subsequently converted to S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) by an ATP-dependent transfer of adenosine to methionine via methionine adenosyltransferase (21). S-adenosylmethionine then donates its labile methyl groups to more than 80 biological methylation reactions, including the methylation of DNA, RNA, and protein (22). When the supply of folate is limited, plasma and cellular levels of homocysteine increase. Although the alternative zinc-requiring enzyme for methionine synthesis, betaine-homocysteine methyltransferase, may partially compensate for the reduced MS activity, it is well known that dietary folate depletion alone is a sufficient perturbing force to diminish SAM pools (23). This leads to an increase in cellular levels of S-adenosylhomocysteine (SAH) because the equilibrium of the SAH-homocysteine interconversion actually favors SAH synthesis. Therefore, when homocysteine metabolism is inhibited (as in folate deficiency), cellular SAH will be increased. Increased SAH inhibits methyltransferase activity and, consequently, DNA methylation reactions (24). This inhibition of DNA methylation associated with inadequate dietary folate has also been associated with increased cancer susceptibility.



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  		Figure 1. Dietary factors, enzymes, and substrates involved in methyl metabolism. Enzymes are shown in italics with a box around them. These include glycine hydroxymethyltransferase (GHMT; EC 2.1.2.1); methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR; EC 1.5.1.20); 5-methyltetrahy-drofolate:homocysteine S–methyltransferase (methionine synthase of MS; EC 2.1.1.13); betaine-homocysteine S-methyltransferase (BHMT; CD 2.1.1.5); methionine adenosyltransferase (MAT; EC 2.5.1.6); DNA methyltransferase (DNMT; EC 2.1.1.37); S-adenosyl-homocysteine hydrolase (SAHH; EC 3.3.1.1); and cystathionine-ß-synthase (CBS; EC 4.2.1.22). Abbreviations: DHF, dihydrofolate; Ser, serine; Gly, glycine; Cys, cysteine; THF, tetrahydrofolate; B6, vitamin B6 or pyridoxine; B12, vitamin B12 or cobalamin; B2, vitamin B2 or riboflavin; 5,10-CH2 THF, 5,10-methyltetrahydrofolate; 5,10-THF, 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate; methyl-THF, 5-methyltetrahydrofolate; Zn, zinc; DMG, dimethylglycine; SAM, S-adenosylmethionine; SAH, S-adenosylhomocysteine; GSH, glutathione.

 
A large number of epidemiologic and clinical studies suggest that dietary folate intake and blood folate concentrations are inversely associated with colorectal cancer risk (25–29). Animal studies using chemical and genetically predisposed rodent models have provided considerable support for a causal relationship between folate depletion and colorectal carcinogenesis as well as a dose-dependent protective effect of folate supplementation (30–32). However, animal studies have also shown that the dose and timing of folate intervention are critical in providing safe and effective chemoprevention; exceptionally high supplemental folate concentrations and folate intervention after microscopic neoplastic foci are established in the colorectal mucosa promote rather than suppress carcinogenesis (25). Animal studies have shown that folate deficiency causes DNA hypomethylation prior to the development of tumors (33). DNA hypomethylation has also been found in lymphocytes of humans on low dietary folate and can be reversed by folate repletion (34). In contrast, folate deficiency with or without reductions in Dnmt1 did not affect overall genomic DNA methylation levels or the methylation levels of two candidate genes, E-cadherin or p53, in normal or neoplastic intestinal tissue (32). These studies suggest that the effects of folate deficiency on DNA methylation are highly complex; appear to depend on cell type, target organ, and stage of transformation; and are gene and site specific.

Gene polymorphisms may modulate the effect of dietary folate on DNA methylation and cancer susceptibility. A single nucleotide substitution at position 677 of the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) gene (C677T) has been associated with a reduced risk of colon cancer (35–38) but an increased risk of breast cancer (39, 40). Slattery et al. (37) reported that colon cancer risk was reduced 30%–40% in individuals homozygous for the variant TT genotype of the MTHFR gene who consumed adequate dietary intakes of folate, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 relative to those with the CC genotype who consumed low nutrient intakes. When folate status is low, the presence of the TT genotype is associated with an increase in homocysteine concentrations and DNA hypomethylation. These studies emphasize the importance of taking into consideration interactions between folate status and critical genes on the folate and one-carbon metabolic pathways when investigating the effect of folate on DNA methylation.

Alcohol consumption has been shown to alter folate metabolism and increase cancer susceptibility. Epidemiologic studies demonstrate that alcohol consumption increases cancer of the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, and liver, and that it causes a small increase in risk for breast cancer (40–45). Excessive alcohol consumption has been shown to alter DNA methylation in the colon of both humans and rats (46, 47). Chronic alcohol exposure has also been found to affect the mRNA levels of DNMT in sperm and thus disturb paternal genomic imprinting, which is suggested as a potential mechanism for the paternal effects of alcohol on abnormal fetal development and growth (48). Thus, many of the adverse effects of alcohol consumption may be related to alterations in DNA methylation.

Other bioactive food components have also been shown to affect DNA methylation (Table 1Go). Many of these nutrients, including zinc, selenium, genistein and vitamin A, have also been associated with cancer susceptibility. Whereas deficiencies of some food components induce global DNA hypomethylation, deficiencies of other food components induce global DNA hypermethylation. For example, zinc deficiency (49) and retinoic acid excess (50) have been shown to reduce the utilization of methyl groups from SAM in rat liver and to result in global DNA hypomethylation. Selenium deficiency decreased DNA methylation in Caco-2 cells and in rat liver and colon (51). In contrast, vitamin C deficiency has been associated with DNA hypermethylation in lung cancer cells (52). However, there may be optimum amounts for certain dietary components based on DNA methylation. For example, either an absence or an excess of dietary arsenic has been shown to cause global hypomethylation in rat liver (53).

Soy phytoestrogens, such as genistein, are thought to be involved in preventing the development of certain prostate and mammary cancers by maintaining a protective DNA methylation pattern (39). Consumption of genistein was positively correlated with changes in prostate DNA methylation at CpG islands of specific mouse genes as assessed using mouse differential hybridization arrays (54). This assay allows one to screen the entire genome for aberrant methylation patterns and locate candidate sequences for further study (54). Other phytoestrogens have also been shown to modify DNA methylation. Neonatal exposure to the phytoestrogens coumestrol and equol have been found to lead to specific hypermethylation of the c-Ha-ras proto-oncogene in pancreatic cancer (55).

The influence of bioactive food components on gene-specific DNA methylation is less clearly understood than the effect of bioactive food components on global DNA methylation. In a rat model of hepatocellular carcinoma, a choline-deficient diet induced hypomethylation of CpG sites of the c-myc gene as well as overexpression of this gene (56). Methylation of the promoter region of p53 in Caco-2 cells decreased when cells were cultured in the absence of selenium (51). Arsenic has been shown to induce hypo-methylation of the 5' regulatory region of Ha-ras in animals (57). Interestingly dietary factors that alter global DNA methylation can simultaneously cause opposite effects on gene-specific methylation. For example, folate deficiency causes global DNA hypomethylation but hypermethylation of the 5' regulatory sequence of the H-cadherin gene (58). Caco-2 cells treated with 1 µmol arsenite/L had significantly higher global methylation but significantly less methylation of the p53 tumor suppressor gene than Caco-2 cells treated with 2 µmol arsenite/L (51). Furthermore, retinoic acid leads to global hypomethylation but region-specific hypermethylation (5). Thus, the pattern of gene-specific methylation may not be in concert with the direction of changes in genomic DNA methylation.

Nutrients have also been shown to affect gene transcription by modifying exon-specific DNA methylation. For example, in animals fed methyl-deficient diets, increased levels of mRNA for c-fos, c-Ha-ras, and c-myc were correlated with hypomethylation at specific sites within the exons of these genes (59, 60). In a hepatocarcino-genesis study with chronic dietary methyl deficiency, the methylation status of the p53 gene coding region decreased and then increased, which corresponded to a high p53 mRNA level in preneoplastic liver tissue and then a lower p53 mRNA level after tumor formation (61). This suggests that methylation changes in the coding region of genes can affect gene transcription and that gene-specific methylation can vary during the carcinogenic process.

Bioactive food components can also modulate DNA methylation by interfering with DNMT activity. Green tea has been shown to inhibit carcinogenesis in many different animal models (62). Recently, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, the major polyphenol from green tea, was found to inhibit DNMT activity by binding to the enzyme, which resulted in the reactivation of methylation-silenced genes in cancer cells (62). Rats fed selenium- or folate-deficient diets had significantly reduced liver and colon DNMT activity; however, the mechanism for their inhibitory effect is not known (63). Cadmium is another active inhibitor of DNMT as shown in studies on cultured rat liver cells and in animals (64). Furthermore, both cadmium and zinc inhibited DNMT activity in the nuclear extracts from rats fed either a control or a methyl-deficient diet (65). The inhibitory effects of cadmium and zinc may be caused by binding of these metals to the cysteine residue of the active center of DNMT (65).

Modifications of histone acetylation are another epigenetic mechanism whereby bioactive food components can modulate gene expression. Histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors have been shown to bind through zinc at zinc-binding sites (66). This has led to the development of a novel class of HDAC inhibitors in which short-chain fatty acids are tethered to a zinc-chelating moiety through hydrophobic linkages (67). The short-chain fatty acid, butyrate, has been shown to promote hyperacetylation of the RET proto-oncogene and increase its transcription (68). Nickel is a potent environmental carcinogen, and exposure to nickel can induce de novo methylation of tumor suppressor genes due to formation of heterochromatic structure at these gene loci (69). Furthermore, a suppressive effect of nickel on histone H4 acetylation in vitro has been reported for both yeast and mammalian cells (70). Thus, alterations in histone acetylation may be another mechanism whereby dietary components modulate gene expression and cancer susceptibility.


   There Is a Need to Look at Nutrient Interactions
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 What Is DNA Methylation?
 Role of DNA Methylation...
 Nutrients That Affect DNA...
 There Is a Need...
Summary
 References
 
Although many bioactive food components have been shown to modify epigenetic events and cancer susceptibility, looking at individual nutrients may be too simplistic. Dietary methyl (folate, choline, and methionine) deficiency in combination causes decreased tissue SAM, global DNA hypomethylation, hepatic steatosis, cirrhosis, and ultimately hepatic tumorigenesis in rodents in the absence of carcinogen treatment (71). The percentage of CpG sites that lose methyl groups on both stands progressively increases in the liver after 9, 18, and 36 weeks of folate/ methyl deficiency despite the presence of elevated DNA methyltransferase activity (17). Thus, it appears that DNA methyltransferase is incapable of methylating double-stranded unmethylated DNA present in preneoplastic liver and this may result in the establishment of a cancer-specific DNA methylation profile. Changes in the DNA methylation profile probably explain why these animals develop cancer in the absence of carcinogen treatment. However, it is also possible that the increased mitogenesis (as a result of folate deficiency) leads to mutations and it is a combination of mutagenesis and altered DNA methylation that leads to cancer. Furthermore, other tissues, such as pancreas, spleen, kidney, and thymus, displayed no changes in DNA methylation level or DNA methyltransferase activity after 36 weeks of folate/methyl deficiency (17). These findings suggest that DNA hypomethylation is specific to the liver, the target tissue for carcinogenesis, following a folate/ methyl-deficient diet. These findings also further support the hypothesis that changes in the DNA methylation profile can cause cancer and that it is important to look at nutrient interactions.

Diets that are deficient in choline or in choline and methionine have also been shown to cause hepatocellular carcinoma in 20%–50% of animals after 12–24 months of consumption (72). However, the carcinogenicity of a methyl-deficient diet is much higher in the presence of adequate vitamin B12, compared with a methyl-deficient diet without vitamin B12 (72). Dietary arsenic has also been shown to interact with a methyl-deficient diet. Administration of arsenic with a methyl-deficient diet to mice resulted in genome-wide hypomethylation and reduced methylation of the promoter region of the oncogene Ha-ras (57). This process would be expected to switch on expression of the oncogene and contribute to tumor development.

Prenatal feeding of a methyl-supplemented diet can increase the level of DNA methylation and phenotypic expression of genes in the offspring (73). The coat color in mice is determined by agouti gene expression (73). This is determined by the DNA methylation status of the long terminal repeat of the agouti gene in the hair follicle. If this region is hypermethylated, the mouse is agouti in color, whereas if the region is hypomethylated, the mouse is yellow. When pregnant female mice were fed a methyl-supplemented diet enriched in zinc, methionine, betaine, choline, folate, and vitamin B12, there was an alteration in the methylation status of the agouti long terminal repeat and none of the pups had a yellow coat (73). Interestingly, the expression of the yellow coat has been linked to an increased risk of obesity, adult diabetes, cancer, and mortality (74). It should be noted that the dietary supplements were added to a control diet that was considered adequate for meeting nutritional needs. Thus, in utero exposure to nutrients can lead to epigenetic modifications of the genome in the offspring and potentially modify cancer risk.

Another important dietary interaction occurs between alcohol and folate to affect DNA methylation and cancer susceptibility. Alcohol has been shown to cleave folate, impair folate absorption, increase folate excretion, and interfere with methionine synthase activity (75). A high alcohol intake may lead to a localized folate deficiency and DNA hypomethylation in the colon, which can occur when dietary folate intake and blood folate concentrations are normal (75). Furthermore, in the Netherlands Cohort Study, the prevalence of promoter hypermethylation (six selected genes previously found to be involved in colorectal cancer) was higher in colorectal cancers derived from patients with low-folate/high-alcohol intake when compared with colorectal cancers from patients with high-folate/low-alcohol intake (46).

Dietary selenium has been shown to modulate many of the adverse effects of folate deficiency, including alterations in one-carbon metabolism and aberrant crypt formation, a preneoplastic lesion for colon cancer (63). For example, when rats were fed a folate-deficient diet, there were large increases in colonic aberrant crypts, plasma homocysteine, and liver SAH concentrations and decreased liver SAM concentrations and methionine synthase activities that were somewhat ameliorated by a selenium-deficient diet (63). In contrast, colonic SAM, SAH, and genomic methylation were not affected by a dietary interaction between selenium and folate. These results suggest that selenium modifies some of the effects of folate deficiency, probably by shunting the buildup of homocysteine (as a result of folate deficiency) through the transsulfuration pathway.


   Summary
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 What Is DNA Methylation?
 Role of DNA Methylation...
 Nutrients That Affect DNA...
 There Is a Need...
 Summary
References
 
Numerous epidemiologic, animal, and human studies suggest that several dietary components can modify cancer risk. Imbalances of nutrients and other bioactive components have been shown to lead to global DNA hypomethylation and gene-specific hypomethylation and/or hypermethylation. Although most methylation research has been done with dietary folate, a number of these studies indicate that the dose and timing of folate intervention, as well as interactive effects with other dietary components, are important in determining its chemopreventive effects.


   Footnotes
 
The U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service, Northern Plains Area, is an equal opportunity/affirmative action employer and all agency services are available without discrimination.


   References
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 What Is DNA Methylation?
 Role of DNA Methylation...
 Nutrients That Affect DNA...
 There Is a Need...
 Summary
 References
 

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